Aaron Perlmutter
Honors Rome - Summer 2009
I. Introduction
The Roman Forum has been the center point of Rome not only geographically but also culturally and politically. From it evolved the Monarchy of Rome, the Republic and the Roman Empire. No matter how the political or religious tone of Rome and its extensive empire changed, the Forum remained a fundamental symbolic force.
Historically, the city of Rome dates back to 753 BC as the center point of the area containing the Etruscans to the west of the Tiber River and the Sabines and Latins to the east. After volcanic and geologic activity, a collection of hills including Quirinal, Capitoline, Esquiline, Caelian and Palatine arose from the ground. Shepherds and farmers of the Sabines and Latins began to occupy what would be Rome in huts on top of these hills. Around the 7th century BC, these villages began to merge creating a whole entity east of the Tiber. This area was mainly used for the growing population and contained private huts and households. Trade between the east of the Tiber (Latins and Sabines) and west of the Tiber (Etruscans) became more common and as a result the Sublican Bridge was built to facilitate exchange. Altogether, the location of the hills, the growing trade market, the cross-route, and the location of the Sublican Bridge, a central point was triangulated just east of the Tiber that would become the Roman Forum.
Taken by Aaron Perlmutter
Model of Early Villages (Located in Palatine Museum)
The Roman Forum was at this time a bog and necropolis that lied between the Capitoline and Palatine hills. Legend holds that Romulus created Rome in 753 BC but the most well-documented and significant monarchy began with Tarquinius Priscus, probably the first Etruscan King, from 616-578. For the next century Rome was controlled by Etruscan Kings, including one of Priscus’s sons, who shaped the development of Rome. The Etruscans were strongly influenced by the Greeks and mimicked Grecian building design and construction. The Etruscans overhauled Rome by building a temple on the top of Capitoline Hill dedicated to Jupiter. After the uniting of the Etruscans with the Latins and Sabines, the Kingdom of Rome began. Upon realizing the centralizing potential of the space of the Roman Forum, they constructed the Cloaca Maxima (circa 600 BC), which drained all tributaries and brooks directly into the Tiber preventing the chronic flooding of this area. From here, the Roman Forum truly came into existence and many roads were built connecting to it including the Sacred Way (circa 575 BC) and the New Way.
From 575- 550 BC the Forum transformed from a mainly residential area to a completely public space. The Forum, still part of the Kingdom of Rome, became the market place of the region. The official date of the ending of the Monarchy is 509 BC from whereupon Rome changed to a Republic and the function of the Forum changed with it. The government change from Monarchy to Republic in 509 BC had drastic ramifications for the purpose of the Forum. The structure of the Forum became more civic oriented; changing from a market place to a political center. This civic engagement was facilitated by structures such as the Rostra, which served as a place for politicians to speak to the public, and the Curia, which was a meeting place for the senators.
With political dialogue came the Plebeian demand for more land and resources. To placate the Plebeians, Rome initiated its geographical expansion. The Roman strategy of conquest was basically a pyramid scheme where the Romans convinced the defeated that they could now go and conquer others with them, just like they had been conquered, and reap the benefits. The exponentially increasing demand for conquest and war caused armies to become larger and consequently made generals more powerful than politicians. The rise of numerous powerful generals led to civil war. In 49 BC Julius Caesar conquered the opposing generals leading to the establishment of the Roman Empire. Once again, with the new political and social environment, the Roman Forum began to change. Over the next 500 years, change within the Empire was reflected in the Forum.
II. Description
The problem in describing the Roman Forum comes from the fact that its significance lies in how it has changed rather than how it is today. Today the Forum appears chaotic; it is mostly in ruins with some well-maintained or reconstructed monuments and buildings. While somewhat dilapidated, this shows the abundance of history that the Forum has borne. It has been built upon constantly over history and commonly lends itself to the analogy of the palimpsest that in Latin roughly translates to “scrape clean and I use again.”
http://62.77.55.137/site/Scuola/Zoom/archeiologia/5.htm
The Modern Roman Forum
Recent picture of the Roman Forum taken near the Tabularium and overlooking the Basilica Julia.
The Forum is located in between Capitoline Hill and Palatine Hill about half a mile east of the Tiber River. It is broken up into a central area and surrounding area. The central area is rectangular and about 300 ft east to west and 100 ft north to south. It is mainly composed of statues, columns and smaller structures. The surrounding area is much larger and contains the basilicas, temples, house of the vestals and curia. Originally, the Forum was at a very low elevation relative to the surrounding hills but over time the landscape has changed lowering the hills and raising the Forum.
Map of the Roman Forum
Map includes the central area, with the Column of Phocae marking it, and the surrounding monuments.
III. Key Monuments
Fig Tree and Lapis Niger
Today, located in the central area of the Forum, there is the Fig Tree that symbolizes the fundamental morals of Roman society. The Fig Tree comes from the myth of Romulus and Remus who as babies were sentenced to death for political reasons. Floating down the river in a basket, they became stuck on the roots of a fig tree, which led to their survival after being saved and fed by a she-wolf. After killing his brother Remus, Romulus went on to establish the city of Rome in 753 BC. During the Monarchy, when the Forum was being developed, the fig tree that Romulus was thought to have been saved by was paved around. But, hundreds of years later during the Republic, the fig tree was still paved around. Despite the dissonance between the political ideals of the Republic and those of the Monarchy, the historical value of the fig tree was put above politics and propaganda. This shows that history is a great value of Roman Society regardless of context.
The Lapis Niger, located just north of the central area, is significant for a similar reason. The Lapis Niger is a sacred place covered in black marble slabs that contains a rectangular stone with early Latin writing on it that dates back to the time of the Monarchy. The writing says that anyone who disturbs the site will be cursed for life. Until recently it was thought that the Lapis Niger was the grave of Romulus; however, current archaeological analysis shows otherwise. Not only in the Republic but throughout the Empire the Lapis Niger was respected. During construction Julius Caesar accidentally exhumed the Lapis Niger. As will be shown, if any Roman did not value historical relics it was Julius Caesar. However, rather than continuing construction, he quickly restored the site and put down the black marble slats that are still there today.
http://www.archeoroma.com/Foro%20Romano/Lapis_Niger/cippoiscritttmb.JPG
The Stone
The Temple and House of Vestal Virgins
The Temple of Vesta was most likely built sometime around 700 BC and controlled by the cult of fire. Inside the Temple was a fire that symbolized Rome; if the fire was kept alive then likewise Rome lived. Because it was made of wood and straw, the Temple was constantly burning down and being rebuilt. Once again, the longevity of the Temple of Vesta is an example of the value history has to Romans even when it conflicts with religion. The cult of fire represented a polytheistic ideal but even when Constantine converted the Empire to Christianity the Temple remained not only as architecture but also culturally on coinage. The Temple being preserved is in part due to respect for historical relics but is also related to the shrewd judgment of the Pagans. They emphasized the Temple as something that would save Rome from the turmoil it underwent during the late Empire. This framed the temple as utilitarian and allowed for comprise in the religious realm of the Empire.
Taken by Aaron Perlmutter
The Temple of Vesta
This is the Temple of Vesta today. The black parts of the Temple are original, otherwise it is reconstructed.
The House of the Vestal Virgins contained six Vestal Virgins who would look over the Temple of Vesta and keep the fire burning. They were appointed at age five or six to be Vestal Virgins and were committed to 30 years of celibacy with punishment of live burial for breaking their vow. As women, their social status was just below empress. They traveled through the city in carriage and could pardon criminals. The House is surrounded with statues of the Vestals showing how dedicated Romans have been to the protection of their flame throughout history. While the Temple of Vesta survived through the Christian movement, by 394 the Vestal Virgins were pressured to disband by the Empire.
http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/I/Gazetteer/Places/Europe/Italy/Lazio/Roma/Rome/Forum_Romanum/_Texts/Huelsen*/2/33.html
House of the Vestal Virgins
This is what the House of the Vestal Virgins would have looked like. The Temple is located in the lower right hand corner.
Rostra
The Rostra is a vital piece of the Roman Republic that provided a place for political dialogue in contrast to the political force of the monarchy. It created a forum where politicians could speak to their citizenry as a whole. It was such a break through in the civic realm that the word ‘rostrum’ is derived from it. Through etymological reasoning, one could infer that this was the first example of public speaking and political dialogue in Latin culture. The Rostra sparked a profound trend of political organization that would influence many cultures and change the course of history.
http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/06/070611092847.htm
The Rostra
This is a digital reconstruction of the Rostra. The Basilica Aemilia is in the back left and the Basilica Julia is in the back right.
The Rostra during the Republic was dismantled and Julius Caesar constructed the New Rostra. It is located about 300 feet west of the Old Rostra, in front of the Curia, and is ten feet high, 80 feet wide and 40 feet long. Clearly, the movement of the Rostra, an emblem of the Republic, by Julius Caesar was due to ulterior motives. Under the Empire, political discourse was worthless at best and so the Rostra was not built with its original intent. The New Rostra was used as propaganda which provided the image of democracy but in reality became a stage for the Empire. One of the earliest oratories given on the New Rostra was by Antony eulogizing Caesar. This kind of theatre continued on the Rostra where the Emperors would put their lives on display for the people as replacement for the old political discourse. Additional propaganda included sculptures surrounding the Rostra that were of various Emperors helping the poor and erasing years of debt for the Roman citizenry.
Taken by Aaron Perlmutter.
Sculptures surrounding the Rostra
Here is the sculpture of an Emperor receiving and burning people's debt. It is located in the Curia Julia today.
Curia
While the Rostra was more a place of politicking for the lower class during the Republic, the Curia (or Senate House) was built for 300 or so patrician senators to rule on different political action. Despite the class divide, the Senate respected the lower class and would not hold a meeting if anything was happening at the Rostra. This political relationship set the standard for all future democratic societies. But, of course, under Caesar the Senate and Curia underwent profound change.
The Curia that we see today is fairly representative of the ones that existed since around 500 BC. It is located near the Rostra and is 150 feet long and 60 feet wide. The design was most greatly changed by Caesar after it burnt down around 50 BC but was only realigned to establish an axis through the Forum. As the architecture of the Curia changed so did the Senate itself. Caesar appointed 300 cronies to the Senate and established a tenuous relationship with the Senate since it really had no power and was only for show. The Empire left the Senate politically debilitated but by 300 AD religious attack came upon it as well. In the Curia was a statue of Victory that was interpreted as Pagan by the Christian Empire. The Curia was thus altered during this period to assimilate to the monotheism of the time.
The Curia Julia
Here is the Curia Julia today. It has undergone much reconstruction and so clearly contains little, if no, original material.
Basilica Aemilia and Basilica Julia
The Basilicas Aemilia and Julia are another indication of Rome the Republic versus Rome the Empire. The Basilica Aemilia dates back to around 180 BC and is located just northeast of the central area. It was used as a social hub, market and place of law. What we know about its design we have gleaned from old coins since today it is completely in ruins. It burnt down in 14 BC and was replaced by Emperor Augustus who left his mark with a chapel dedicated to his grandchildren.
As part of his reconstruction of the Forum, Julius Caesar decided to build the Basilica Julia southwest of the central area. It was nearly identical to the Basilica Aemilia but boasted a roof protecting the Romans from the elements. Different from the Basilica Aemilia, which was also a business and social center, the Basilica Julia was purely a center for law. This seems to be another case of Caesar’s propaganda. By making the Basilica Julia represent a place of justice he overemphasized what Rome lacked because of his supreme power. This construction manipulated his appearance as emperor just as the New Rostra and Curia did.
IV. Conclusion
The Roman Forum has been a reflection of the state of Rome throughout history. It was the central piece in the foundation of Rome and because of this Romans, with their consciousness of history, have treated the Forum as representing the essence of the city. During the Kingdom of Rome, when the Forum was first being developed, the citizens were nothing more than consumers and had no political power. As a consequence, the Forum was only a market place because all the people required was food and entertainment. Upon the establishment of the Republic, the Forum quickly transitioned to a public place where political discourse and interaction would occur. The markets first moved to the perimeter of the Forum and eventually moved elsewhere. Here again, the state of Rome was reflected in the Forum. Finally, with birth of the Empire the Forum became an expression of the emperor’s ego. It was used for propaganda to justify the Empire and continually adapted to the politics and religion of the Empire.
The Roman Forum
Here is a representation of what the Roman Forum would have looked like during the empire. The picture contains the Curia, central area and Basilicas.
V. Of Personal Interest
In researching the Roman Forum, I became most interested in the relationship between people, government and history. At first, the relationship between the Forum and Romans was completely natural and unconscious. Romans treated the Forum as a symbol of the strength of their society without questioning it. What interested me the most was how Caesar was able to realize the unconscious dependence Romans had on the Forum and, through manipulation of this dependence, was able to come to power. Ultimately, this shows the power that concrete symbols have over humanity even when the things they symbolize are as abstract as freedom and self-determination.
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Claridge, Amanda. Rome: An Archaeological Guide. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998.
Downey, B. Susan. Architectural Terracottas from the Regia. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1998.
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Pena, J. Theodore. The Urban Economy during the Early Dominate: Pottery evidence from the Palatine Hill. Oxford: Archaeopress, 1999.
Romanelli, Pietro. The Roman Forum. Roma: La Libreria Dello Stato, 1950.
